Comparing Platos Allegory of the Cave and Maimonides Limits of Mans

Plato's Allegory of the Cave and Maimonides' Limits of Man's Intellect      Ã‚   Enlightenment is the key subject of both Plato's "Allegory" and Moses Maimonides' "Limits of Man's Intellect." To them, obtaining knowledge is life's most significant objective. Plato stresses "the Good" while Maimonides encourages "Perfection" as the aim of this objective. While both authors share compatible thoughts toward the subject of enlightenment, there are key differences between "the Good" and "Perfection" that should be duly noted.    In Plato's "Allegory" we see mankind in a state of imprisonment. What they consider reality is merely shadows that are cast on a cavern wall. This can be linked to Maimonide's essay in that he views man's youth as a kind of imprisonment when it comes to obtaining abstract knowledge. He says it is important to initiate the young and teach them according to their ability to comprehend (296). This I feel is an initial starting point, a state of beginnings similar to man being shackled by the limits of its intellect at youth. In the "Allegory of ...

Edgar Allen Poes The Cask Of Amontillado :: essays research papers fc

"The Cask of Amontillado" Grimes ii Outline Thesis: The descriptive details in "The Cask of Amontillado" not only appeal to the senses of the audience, but also show that the narrator has a memory that has been haunted with details that he can recall fifty years later. I. Introduction II. Auditory Appeal III. Humor Appeal IV. Visual Appeal V. Conclusion Grimes 1 "The vividness with which [Poe] transcribes his sensory experiences contributes powerfully to the response his stories invoke" (Fagin 202). In "The Cask of Amontillado," Edgar Allan Poe uses captivating images to descriptively tell a tail of revenge, while appealing to the senses of the audience. In "The Cask of Amontillado," Montressor seeks to have revenge on Fortunato for an unknown insult. Montressor confesses at the beginning of the story, "The thousand injuries of Fortunato I had borne as I best could; but when he ventured upon insult, I vowed revenge" (Lowell 214). Montresor wants to "not only punish, but punish with impunity"(214). The nature of this insult is not made clear; however, the reader is led to believe that the insult changed Montresor’s social status. Montresor says to Fortunato "You are rich, respected, admired, beloved; you are happy, as once I was." This leads the reader to believe that Montresor once had high social status, but that status has changed due to the insult by Fortunato. Fortunato, entering the scene wearing a jesters costume, is unaware of Montesors’ evil intentions of murder. Montresor persuades Fortunato, who prides "himself on his connoisseurship in wine," to go into the family vaults so he can taste and identify some "Amontillado" (Lowell 215). Along the way Fortunato becomes extremely drunk and unaware of Montresor’s evil plot of murder. Montresor then proceeds to lead him through the catacombs and finally buries him alive behind a wall. Mont resor calls to Fortunato, but the only reply that he receives comes in the "jingling of the bells" from Fortunato’s cap (222). Grimes 2 II. Auditory Appeal The fact that the narrator mentions the "jingling of the bells" several times after fifty years indicates that he is haunted with a memory of their sound. Poe knew that the audience would relate the terrifying sound of the bells to premature burial. Premature burial is a concern during the 19th century when Poe writes this short story (Platizky 1). Live burial is practiced during this time as a form of capital punishment in Europe (1).

Gold :: science

Gold Gold was discovered around 3000 BC to 1200 BC. Gold probably was found on the ground and used by prehistoric man as a tool. Highly sophisticated gold art objects and jewelry discovered by archaeologists in the Royal Tombs at Ur, in what is now Southern Iraq, date back to around 3000 BC. Similarly, goldsmiths of the Chavin civilization in Peru were making ornaments by hammering and embossing gold by 1200 BC. Where and abundance in nature: Since gold is both durable and carefully guarded, most of the gold that has been taken from the Earth still exists. Much of it has been buried again in underground vaults, where it is held in government monetary reserves. In 1990 the bullion reserves of the free world were estimated to total some 43,000 tons. Of this, the United States held 11 percent. Gold reserves of South Africa were estimated at some 20,000 tons. Despite the prevalence of antihoarding laws, another 50,000 tons were believed to be privately held. People are willing to take enormous risks and short-term financial losses to hoard gold against the possibility of fiscal inflation . The rest of the world's accumulated gold was held in official stocks by central banks or was industrially employed or lost. Today gold may be bought and sold on many markets. The largest is in London, England. Others exist in several nations of continental Europe, in the Middle East, and in Asia. Past and Current use: Gold probably was found on the ground and used by prehistoric man as a tool. Highly sophisticated gold art objects and jewelry discovered by archaeologists in the Royal Tombs at Ur, in what is now Southern Iraq, date back to around 3000 BC. Similarly, goldsmiths of the Chavin civilization in Peru were making ornaments by hammering and embossing gold by 1200 BC. Gold is usually alloyed in jewelry to give it more strength, and the term carat describes the amount of gold present (24 carats is pure gold). It is estimated that all the gold in the world, so far refined, could be placed in a single cube 60 ft. on a side. It is metallic, with a yellow color when in a mass, but when finely divided it may be black, ruby, or purple. It is the most malleable and ductile metal; 1 ounce (28 g) of gold can be beaten out to 300 square feet.

Introduction to ambahan Essay

Ambahans inscribed on a bamboo slat The ambahan is a literary product and poetic expression of the Southern Mangyans of Mindoro, Philippines. Although there are about seven different ethnic groups living in Mindoro, collectively called the Mangyans, these groups are quite distinct from each other as to language, customs, and way of living. Only the ethnic group living in the south of Mindoro, roughly comprising the areas within the municipalities of Bulalacao (San Pedro), Mansalay, Oriental Mindoro and San Jose, Occidental Mindoro, claims the name Mangyan as the descriptive title of their tribe. To stress their point, they might add the epiteth: â€Å"Hanunuo† Mangyan, that is, a â€Å"truly, real, genuine† Manygan. Together with their northern neighbors, the Buhids, they possess a pre-Spanish writing system, considered to be of Indic origin, with characters expressing the open syllables of the language. Two distinct syllabaries are still in practical use among the ethnic groups in Mindoro, viz. the north ern Buhid on one hand and the southern Buhid with the Hanunuo-Mangyans on the other. The existence of a writing system among these tribes certainly accounts largely for the wealth of literature prevalent among them. One of the literary products, the one written down most frequently on bamboo-tubes or slats, is the ambahan. For better understanding and appreciation of the ambahans presented here, a short outline on the character and use of the ambahan will be given here. As a definition, it can be stated that the ambahan is: A. A rhythmic poetic expression with a meter of seven syllable lines and having rhythmic end-syllables. B. It is most often presented as a chant without a determined musical pitch or accompaniment by musical instruments. C. Its purpose is to express in an allegorical way, liberally using poetic language, certain situations or certain characteristics referred to by the one reciting the poem. The meter of seven syllables in one line is the characteristic of the ambahan which most obviously distinguishes it from other kinds of Hanunuo-Mangyan poetry. However, there are exceptions to the rule. For instance, more than seven syllables may be found at the beginning of the ambahan, especially when it starts with the standard expression magkunkuno (speaks, says) because the one who â€Å"speaks† here may have a long name containing more than the usual seven syllables. Actually, these first lines should not be considered as part of the poem proper, but rather as an introduction to or an explanation of the circumstances which gave rise to the ambahan itself. Sometimes, there may be more than seven syllables because the employed word or words cannot be shortened and no other combination of words is available. On the other hand, a line may contain less than seven syllables in order to preserve the meaning of the line itself which might be disturbed if more syllables were added. However, the last exception rarely occurs. In an effort to conform to the rule of having only seven syllables in each line, the composer tries to fit his words within the pre-determined quantity of syllables. This accounts for the many elisions and contactions of words that make the reading of the ambahan in the Hanunuo-Mangyan script so difficult and exasperating to the translator. Thus nirwasan comes from niruwasan; nilkasan from nilukasan; the mono-syllables gin from ginan; u from una. Conversely, the words may be extended, i.e. syllables may be added in order to have the required seven syllables. In most cases, the normal procedure involves the use of affixes and suffixes, both of which are extensively used in the Philippine languages. The most common one in the Hanunuo-Mangyan language is the suffix -an. Manok becomes manukan, balunos becomes balunusan, without a change in meaning. Within the word, â€Å"extensions† may also be found which might be old infixes, no longer common. So dayap becomes dalayap, layaw becomes lugayaw. Another way of lengthening a word is by repeating the word itself, not so much to make it superlative in meaning (e.g. in Tagalog: laking-laki), but rat her to complete the seven syllable requirement. While it is not my intention to be technical on this point, as a linguist’s analysis of morphological phenomena would be, the foregoing illustrations demonstrate that the prescribed scheme of seven syllables in ambahan verse gives ample opportunity for lexical calisthenics, an exercise which may fascinate many students. The rhyming end-syllables are an essential feature of the ambahan. The most common rhyming syllable is -an, being a regular suffix for verbs and substantives in the Hanunuo-Mangyan language. But other combinations with the vowel a are rather common too, such as in lines having the end-syllables: a, ak, ag, ang, as, aw, ay. Here the vowel a is combined with nearly all the consonants in the Philippine alphabet. In the same way, the vowels I (or e) and o (or u) can be found as the rhyming syllables, either alone or in combination, e.g.: I, id, ing, ip, it, and o, od, ok, on, ong, os, ot, oy. The rhyming in the ambahan is consequent, i.e. once started with -an, all lines will end in -an. This appears to be in contrast to the rhyming scheme of a Tagalog poem, where at the end of a line a vowel rhyme may include any consonant in combination with this vowel. The ambahan is stricter in this respect, though it is interesting to note that here and there consonants, if belonging to the same pho netic class, may be included as the rhyming consonant in combination with the rhyming vowel. Hence, the word inwag rhymes with ma-ayad because both g and d belong to the phonetic class of voiced stops. The word humbak rhymes with dagat because both k and t belong to the phonetic class of voiceless stops. The word sundong, lumon and tayutom are the end-syllables of one ambahan because ng, n, and m belong to the phonetic class of voiced sonorants. Of course, it is not because the Hanunuo-Mangyan knows anything about phonetics that these instances occur, but it is a fact that the interchanges of these consonants are not considered violations of the unwritten rules of the ambahan, provided that the vowel remains the same. The ambahan is a chanted verse, but it is changed plainly or almost recited. The rendering of the ambahan with musical pitch might differ from person to person. Some might intone the words like in common conversation; others might use it a monotone recitation; or still others might sing it with a distinct melody. But generally, it can be said that when an ambahan is â€Å"sung,† there is only a slight musical pitch discernable, except maybe towards the end, when the last syllables are drawn out a bit to indicate that the chant is about to end. Furthermore, it is well worth noting that the ambahan, is â€Å"sung† without the accompaniment of musical instruments, as differentiated from another kind of Mangyan verse, the urukay, which is preferably chanted to the accompaniment of the homemade guitar. One who has a knowledge of the language of the Hanunuo-Mangyans as it is used in their daily conversation, will be able to understand very little of the language that is used in the ambahan. The language used in the ambahan differs from the spoken language, though many a word used widely in the daily Hanunuo-Mangyan language is also used in the ambahan-vocabulary. It is quite possible to compile a long list of words (eventually a complete dictionary) that are used only in the ambahan verse, but, for the purpose of this book, only a few words need to be mentioned. Conversational language| Ambahan language| English| amang| bansay| father| inang| suyong| mother| danom| kagnan| water| balay| labag| house| niyog| bu-anay| coconut| bagaw| duyan| talk| mata| pamidkan| eye| That the words of the ambahan vocabulary are found not only in the ambahan of the Hanunuo-Mangyans but also in the literary products of the neighboring Mangyan tribes, seems to be a significant coincidence worth investigating, especially if it is remembered that these other tribes use a conversational language different from the Hanunuo-Mangyan language. Some questions that would confront the investigator are the following: Where do these ambahan words come from? Are there other dialects in the Philippines from which they may have been derived? Or do we have to turn our attention to other countries like Indonesia or India to get an explanation? Here is a potential field of research that should give a linguist enough material to work on. In some of the ambahans here presented, it will be noticed that the theme is about a bird, a flower, a tree, or an insect. Other ambahans, though not nature poems in the strict sense of the term, deal with the sun, the moon, the stars, the rain and th e wind. When a Mangyan poet writes of a flower, he writes of itnot for the purpose of celebrating its beauty or fragrance but to make it an allegory or a symbol of human life, it’s problems, and its challenges. Sometimes the symbolism of a bird or flower may be clear enough, as when a boy talks to his girl about â€Å"a beautiful flower that he would like to bring home.† Very often, however, one symbol may refer to different conditions or circumstances and, thus, becomes a multiple symbol. An examination of ambahan no. 114 will help clarify this point. What does the poem mean? First, it means simply what it says: â€Å"Be careful, or you will be stung by a bee. Take precautions in getting honey.† This would be the literal interpretation of the poem. The added meaning of allegorical interpretation would depend, of course, on the occasion and circumstances, such as climbing a mountain, going to sea, going to town, engaging in a contest with another person, or going to the parents to ask for the hand of their daughter. The complex set of meanings thus woven into an ambahan are gradually unravelled only after the poem had been analyzed with much care and patience. A related study which is worth mentioning at this point would be an investigation into the psychological motivation for the Mangyan’s frequent use of plants, animals, and nature symbols and their predilection for allegorical poetry. [Postma, Antoon SVD. Treasure of a Minority. Manila: Arnoldus Press, Inc., 1981.] The origin of the ambahan A Hanunuo-Mangyan woman chanting an ambahan at a community ambahan session [Source: Antoon Postma] If you ask a Hanunuo-Mangyan, â€Å"Where did you get this ambahan?,† he will most likely answer, â€Å"I copied it from somebody else.† That is quite probable, for the ambahan has been popularized by being copied on any piece of bamboo, such as the container for tobacco or apog (lime), the scabbard or sheath of a bolo, a violin or guitar, and even on the bamboo beams of a house. When a Mangyan discovers a nice ambahan, he uses his knife to engrave it on bamboo, in the age-old Indic-derived script. Thus, he has â€Å"copied† it. In answer to the same question, another Mangyan may reply, â€Å"We obtained this from our forefathers.† Most of the ambahans they possess now have been handed down from parents to children through continuos copying. Yet there is no doubt that new ambahans are still being written today by the poets or composers, although it is hard to find out who these poets are. A Mangyan would never admit that he is composing ambahans. To determine the approximate time in which an ambahan was written, two criteria may be suggested: the subject and the kind of words used. The first criterion cannot be applied without reservation, for the subject of the ambahan is sometimes very general and true of any period. But if we find reference in the ambahan to Moro attacks or to Mangyans still living along the sea-shore, we are on surer ground, for the attacks of the Moros are known to have occurred at a certain time, and the Mangyans lived along the shores before the non-Mangyans settled on the island. On the other hand, when an ambahan poet writes of going to America, the poem is certain to have been written in modern times. The second criterion, the kind of words used, is more reliable and, if used by experts, would be a more certain indication of the age of the ambahan. By using this criterion, ambahans may be categorized into three classes. The first type is the ambahan that only uses the poetic language with a minimum of contemporary words. Sometimes common Hanunuo-Mangyan words are used, but this type of ambahan restricts itself mainly to the use of literary words, i.e. words not used in daily conversation. According to the Mangyans themselves, this is the oldest kind of ambahan. The next type of ambahan is that in which words borrowed from neighboring tribes, especially the Buhid tribe, are used. Frequent contact with this tribe has made the Hanunuo-Mangyans accept these borrowed words and expressions which found their way into their ambahans. Lastly, there is the ambahan of later times, in wh ich loan-words from Spanish, Tagalog or Bisaya are evident. The painstaking study by linguists of the words used in the ambahan may supply the final answer to the question of the time in which an ambahan was written. [Postma, Antoon. Mangyan Treasures. Manila: Arnoldus Press, Inc., 1995.] The ambahan and its uses Hanunuo-Mangyan poems in the Mangyan syllabic script inscribed on betel nut containers made of bamboo The ambahans are very common among the Hanunuo-Mangyans. About thirty percent of the Hanunuo-Mangyans do not read or write the pre-Spanish Hanunuo-Mangyan script, but it would be rare indeed for a Mangyan not to know the art of the ambahan. Of course, a Mangyan will quickly deny any knowledge of the ambahan, but this is only a polite way of refusing to demostrate such knowledge. People who have tried to collect ambahans will be the first to admit the difficulty of making the Mangyans recite the ambahans outside of the proper occasion for doing it. Aside from the Hanunuo-Mangyans, the neighboring Mangyan tribes also know about the ambahan. Though the actual extent to which the ambahan is known by these other tribes has not been fully investigated, it is certain that this type of poetry is also common among the Buhid-Mangyans. The language of the Buhid is completely different from that of the Hanunuo-Mangyans, but one may still partly understand the literary products of the other. The ambahan can also be found among the tribes living deep in the mountains of Mindoro. These natives go down to the lowlands very rarely, and on one of these occassions I was lucky enough to acquire some copies of their ambahans. The Hanunuo-Mangyans do not understand much of it, except when exclusive ambahan words are used. However, before anything more authoritative can be said on this matter, one must explore the field further. The verse of the Iraya-Mangyans (in the north of Mindoro) is also very similar to the ambahan-type, i.e. they also have the characteristic heptasyllabic meter and rhyming end-syllables. Ambahans are known and recited by Hanunuo-Mangyans, both old and young. Of course, different ambahans will be appropriate for different age groups. The children definitely have their own kind of ambahans, something which might be considered as the equivalent of our nursery rhymes. However, even in these rhymes all the el ements of the ambahan are present; the main distinction lies in the simplicity of the language used. The ambahans for children, however, are short, most of them containing not more than six lines. A boy (kan-akan) and a girl (daraga) would be familiar with the ambahans fit for them, but once they are married, they would acquaint themselves with the ones that are appropriate for their new state of life. Like all poetry, the ambahan is an expression of an idea or feeling in a beautiful and harmonious language. Unlike other forms of poetry , however, the ambahan is not poetry for its own sake or for the poet’s satisfaction. The ambahan is primarily a poem of social character; it finds its true existence in society. It is created by the Mangyans to serve practical purposes within the community. It is used by the parents in educating their children, by young people in courting each other, by a visitor in asking for food and by a relative bidding goodbye or farewell. Of course, it would be a mistake to think that the Mangyans converse with each other only by the ambahan. If a man comes from his field, he would not use an ambahan to tell his wife that he is hungry; he will express the feeling of his stomach in plain and clear language. But generally speaking, the ambahan is used on those occasions when something embarrassing, unpleasant, delicate or even precious (as love) has to be said. For instance, a boy may tell a girl in plain language that he will never forget her, but it would sound so much nicer if he were to do so in an ambahan. The social nature of the ambahan has given rise to a kind of verbal contest. Whenever Mangyans are together, a few of them (often the older generation) will eagerly compete with each other in the ability to recite the ambahan called for by the place and the occasion. Among these occasions are festivities held in connection with reburial. One Mangyan might challenge another with an ambahan, for example. This starts the contest. The people gather around the two contestants (without agreement, without rules, without bets), listening intently to the ambahans recited alternately by the two opponents. Each ambahan recited is an answer to the problem or theme propounded in the ambahan preceeding it. Both contestants are lustily cheered and encouraged by their supporters. In most cases, the one who recites last is declared the winner. The contest may go deep into the night. Whether one or the other wins is unimportant; what matters most is the entertainment derived from the contest. A few final remarks about the translation of the ambahan may still be of interest. A researcher who happens to be in the mountains of Mansalay and becomes acquainted with the ambahan will become enthusiastic about it and may even want to translate some of them into his own language. But before he can translate the ambahan, he must study the ancient Indic script. After having mastered it well, he will find out to his dismay, that he still cannot read everything written on the bamboo. This is due to the fact that the script itself does not show the final consonant of each syllable. When he has overcome the disappointment, he will probably try to get an ambahan written down in clear, readable letters. Tape-recording the ambahan would take away the initial difficulties of copying from script. However, even then he will not understand all the implications of the ambahan unless the Mangyan can explain it. In translating an ambahan, we find a special difficulty arising from the symbolic meaning of the words used. The Mangyan may supply the applied allegorical meaning but he might not understand the literal meanings of certain words. The meanings of these words can often be discovered because of the frequent use of repetition of ideas. Sometimes complete lines may be repetitions of the same idea in synonymous words. Before the ambahan can be completely understood, it is imperative to collect as many samples of the ambahan as possible. This is the main work being done at present in this field. A detailed comparison of specimens, sifting and classifying words, and careful experiments in translating the words into another context have to be done by experts in this field of research. Only then will the ambahan emerge in the fullness of its beauty and signification. The present anthology of ambahans is selected from a collection that started in 1958. In preparing this selection, it was not an easy task to decide on the best way of grouping or arranging these ambahans. It was finally decided to observe a dual system in classifying these Mangyan poems. The first system is to take the obvious and literal meaning as expressed by the poem. The second is the allegorical or applied meaning that can be gleaned from the ambahan. With this dual system in mind, the ambahans in this collection have been arranged according tot he life-cycle of the Hanunuo-Mangyans. Hence, this collection of ambahans starts with the cradle and ends with the grave. It is believed that this arrangement is the most satisfactory. [Postma, Antoon SVD. Treasure of a Minority. Manila: Arnoldus Press, Inc., 1981.] Ambahan: Birth and infancy Since the aim of this collection of ambahans is to present a cross-section of the Mangyan poetic verse with respect to the life-cycle of the Mangyans, the first ambahans, to be chronological, should pertain to the first chapters of human life. The following series of common cradle songs in ambahan style might be a fine illustration of how the songs can be different in rhyme and metaphor whereas the underlying theme is the same. Ambahan 3| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | My dear baby, do not cry ’cause the wild cat might hear us! The big one from over there, with his awful long-stretched howl! Helpless are we if he comes. Our spear is broken still and our bolo bent and blunt!| Huwag ka ngang umiyak Hala ka at mapukaw Pusang-ligaw sa gubat Ngumiyaw, maghihiyaw Wala kitang pambugaw Sibat nati’y nawasak Gulok nati’y nabingaw!| Ambahan 4| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | Don’t be noisy, baby dear! The wild iro might come here. The one out of the deep woods. How to fight him when he comes? Broken is our spear in two and our bolo disappeared!| H’wag ka ngang magulo May laog nanunubok Mula gubat susugod Wala kitang panghamok Sibat nati’y napulpol Itak ay anong purol!| Ambahan 5| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | You, my baby, don’t make noise! Some strange animal might come, coming from across the streams. Knocking on the house, he will, with his glittering sharp claws, No weapons for us to kill; our bolo we cannot use, rusty is our spear and blunt.| Anak, ‘wag kang ngumalngal Hala ka, may bakulaw! Sa dahilig do’n buhat Tutuktok sa suliras Kay tulis ng galamay Wala kitang pamatay Tong itak walang saysay Kinalawang ‘yang sibat!| Ambahan: Childhood Sweet are the memories of our childhood. For the Mangyan child, it is a time of unconcern and carefreeness, even if the child has to take his share of the family duties to the measure of his capacities. It is with feelings of sentimentality and homesickness that a young man recalls the happy years of his youth that passed away too fast. It is also with pride that he remembers the love and kindness shown to him by his parents. Ambahan 6 (4)| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | That time, when I was still young, (I was just a baby still) when I sat on mother’s lap, when she rocked me in a crib, in a cradle newly made. Mommy lulling me asleep, did not leave me in a crib, in her arms she cradled me. Oh, how sweet these memories! wish I could climb once again in the cradle lovely made! So I could be showing off how I grew so beautifully! You, the people from the shore, people from the mountains too, could you just come here this way! Visit me just once again, the unfolding, blooming tree! I’ll recall this all my life.| Noong ako’y muraan Sanggol na sanggol pa lang Karga pa sa kandungan Inuugoy sa duyan Sa kagagawang duyan Hinehele ni Nanay Hindi n’ya iniiwan Sapo n’ya sa kandungan O kay gandang nagdaan! Muli sanang mahimlay Sa banayad na duyan Nang tunay kong mamasdan Paglaki kong kariktan Kayong taga-baybayan Maging taga-burulan Kung maaring puntahan Pasyalan at pagmasdan Punong namumukadkad Alaala kailanman!| But there is also the obedient child who has his important task in the whole of the family work: watching that the products in the field will not be destroyed by the wild animals. Ambahan 13| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | The reason why I am here, walking along hills and vales, because Mother has told me and my Father he just said: â€Å"Better go and have a look, at the field we have prepared. Monkeys might be eating there and the pigs destroying plants.† So I went and had a look at the field we have prepared. But no monkeys eating there, and no pigs destroying plants. However, what I did see, was a bird, still rather small, sitting on the field we have, at the borders of the field. Maybe one day it’ll be there, when the rice is ripe and fair.| Sanhi po ng paglakad sa kabundukan Ang bilin po ni Inang Kay Ama’y kawikaan: â€Å"Pumar’on iho’t tingnan Kaingin nating hawan Baka matsi’y lamunan Baboy ay mag-arumbang† Akin nang pinuntahan Kaingin nating hawan Matsin ay wala naman Ni baboy na ligaw man Anu’t aking namasdan Merong ibong ‘liitan Sa kainging hinawan Sa gilid na taniman Baka bukas nandiyan Pagdatal ng anihan!| Children, however, are the same everywhere. Romping around with their playmates, they produce a deafening noise, often to the despair of their parents. Ambahan 15| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | Sure, the kids they are not bad, but, say, who would not get mad! When from morning until night all this noise, right at your side, and those fights on top of that!| Kahit bata’y mabait Sinong di maiinis Buong araw at gabi Iritan d’ya’t kagalit Awayan d’yan sa inggit!| Ambahan: Adolescence The transition from the dependent child into the self-sufficient young man or woman is not marked by initiation ceremonies or induction rites. In some things, children are given independence at an early age. In other things, they continue to act dependently. Ambahan 27| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | Mother carried me around. Father always at my side. I, the baby, was still small: just a little child I was. Going to the field to work, Father led me by the hand. Even speaking simple words as a babe I did not know. But now everything has changed. The small baby has grown up. Now the baby understands all the words that Father speaks, Everything that mother says. Even when I’m walking far, when I travel far away and it becomes dangerous I’ll return immediately.| Kinakalong ni Nanay Kinakandong ni Tatay Sadya pang kamusmusan Tunay akong paslit lang Hangang sa kaingin man ‘Sinasama ni Tatay Kahit pa utal-utal Sanggol na walang muwang Ngunit nang magka-minsan Lumaki’t magkagulang Akin namang nalaman Kay Tatay, kawikaan Kay Nanay, kasabihan Malayo mang lakaran Saan man ang abutan Kung kasam-an ang datnan Sila lang ang uwian!| Then the day comes when adolescence ends. The parents know now that there is not much hope that the young people will do things the way the parents want them to do. The young man goes his way, and nobody can direct him anymore. Ambahan 30| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | Says the lobster in the creek: Even if you place a dam, I will jump it high and neat!| Sabi ng hipong sapa: Kahit mo man bakuran May lusot, paraan pa!| The character of the youngster is fixed now. Even if there are traits the parents do not like, these traits can no longer be changed. Wherever he is, the young adult will behave in his accustomed manner and will not change his attitudes because of others. Ambahan 31| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | Pigeon, with a shortened tail, even there across the hills, you won’t be a nightingale!| Hoy, ibong Balud-balod Libanin mo ma’y bundok Pungos pa rin ‘yang buntot!| Ambahan: Courtship Many pages of sweet-flowing romances have been written about courtship, but the Mangyans create their own by using the examples of the budding and flowering plants and trees around them. Ambahan 38| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | The bamboo in Marigit That I saw at first approach Was just sprouting and still small. When I saw it yesterday, It was standing firm and thick Ready now to build a floor.| Kawayan sa Marigit Pag tanaw ko, palapit Labong pa siyang kay liit Nang daanan ko pabalik Siksikan mga tinik Mainam nang pang-sahig!| Ambahan 39| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | The palm bordering my field Back when it was very small My attention did not call. But now that it’s fully-grown and has shed its dried-up leaves, I will harvest it so fresh and weave me a basket fair. That I can bring everywhere.| Buli sa may kaingin Noong s’ya pa’y musmusin Hindi ko pinapansin Nang gumulang, pagsapit Tanggi ko ang lumain Sariwa kong kukunin Bayong kong lalalain Lagi kong sasakbitin!| A boy has his way of convincing a girl of his good intentions and intimate love. He is willing to sacrifice anything for his beloved. Ambahan 68| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | My sweetheart, my love so dear, when I left, in coming here, coming from my house and yard; all the rice that I have stored, I have left it there behind, because I hope here to find one more valued than my rice! One to be my partner nice to the water, to the field, a companion on my trips, and one who will share my sleep!| O liyag, aking hirang Kanina nang lumisan Galing sa ‘king dingdingan Palay na inanihan Akin lang iniwanan Hinangad kong katuwang Di basta palay lamang Sa lakad sa ilog man Maging sa kaparangan Kaakbay ko saan man Kaabay sa higaan!| Ambahan: Home To give a sample of all the various aspects of the home life within a Mangyan settlement would be next to impossible. However, an attempt to draw a general outline will be undertaken here. Two great themes can be considered of importance in the life-cycle of a Mangyan: 1) His struggle for life in and around his house, to keep hunger and sickness away; and, 2) His unbelievable ability to relax, be happy and unconcerned, often by escaping from his immediate surroundings. What does a Mangyan home look like? His house is not as important as a house is to his countrymen of modern culture. A Mangyan will be the first to admit that his house is of poor construction and just a temporary dwelling. Ambahan 102| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | This the forest Mangyan said: â€Å"What I have to tell you, sir, I’ve been thinking of for long: Your existence is not bad In the lowlands where you live. There the houses that you have Are built with beams of the best Like your floors all made of wood. But we to the mountains born Who have lived here for so long, Our houses are not like that. Our floor is of bamboo built, Our roof made of cogon grass, All of it is tied with vines. But to that I have to add. Don’t forget that we can live Very near the water source Where the birds all come to drink. A cool, shady place to be.†| Sabi ng isang Mangyan: Ang wika ko’y pakinggan Ito ngang kaisipan— Mabuti ang ‘yong lagay Ikaw, taga-kapatagan Kaya taga-baybayan Tabla ay ilang-ilang Nagsahig nang mainam Kaming taga-burulan Kaya nasa burulan aming kabihasnan Sahig ay patpatan Kugon lang ang bubungan May taling baling-uway Datapwa’t ‘to’y pakinggan H’wag naman kalimutan Ibon sa may igiban Bukal itong inuman Na kay lilim kung tingnan!| After all, life is hard and a Mangyan has to spend most of his time eking out a subsistence for himself, so the house itself is of little importance. Ambahan 103| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | Your condition is quite good and your house is beautiful. The walls made of banban leaves, still enforced with bamboo poles. But we, living out-of-doors, we, the mountains dwellers up, if we did not have to search for some food to stay alive, we could also be so wise, we could also find these ways! But the only thing we find, is a sago palm for food!| Dampa mo’y kainaman Bahay n’yo pong gandahan May dingding na banban Patukurang kawayan Kaming nasa bakuran Kaming taga-burulan Di dapat paghanapan Di dapat panghinaan Wala pong karupukan Di dapat manghinayang Dahil masisilayan Yaong buling gandahan!| Even if the construction is nice and strong, the day will come that the house will be torn apart by the ripping blasts of wind. Ambahan 105| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | Climbing vine with the long leaves, leaves symmetrical and fine, how very nice looks your stem! But, they say, you’ll be blown down by the tempest from the shore!| Hoy, uway na lambaan Malamba ang dahon man Ang puno’y kainaman— Kung nasa daraanan Bagyo’y galing ‘patagan!| Ambahan: Problems But at home, life is not always as pleasant as the Manygans would like it to be. There are dark days when the future doesn’t look very bright. These dark days have to be overcome. Ambahan 113| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | Balkawi, my climbing vine, You’re not happy in that spot Your fine leaves are ripping there And your poor stem creaks and cries. I have to replant you now In a place where you will thrive Free from rain and gusty winds.| Hoy, punong Balkawihan Pangit ang tinubuan Dahon mo’y nangalagas Puno mo’y langitngitan Muling itanim na lang Sa payapang hanginan Sa walang daluyungan!| There are the domestic misunderstandings that might arise; the simple accidents that might happen. Ambahan 115| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | Sticks from the balanti tree If you cut them properly From the depth they will resound. But if cut improperly All you get is awful noise.| Kalutang kong Balanti Kung timbang iyang yari Taginting ay mabini Kung tabtab mali-mali Sintunadong matindi!| There is no reason, however, to be as upset about a domestic misunderstanding or a simple accident as about a great disaster. Ambahan 117| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | What is the matter with you that you are so much upset? Like the heavens coming down, as if the whole sky collapsed! Even rain will stop some day, but rain doesn’t own a house! A storm will not last all time, but storm has no place like you! Are you not a human? Man? Doesn’t man always go back to his dwelling place, his home?| Bakit ka nagkaganyan? Ang ulo mo’y kay init Bagsak ang kalangitan Parang bayang guhuan Pagtila nitong ulan Ula’y walang tahanan Hihinto ang ampiyasan Hangi’y walang uwian Di ba’t tao ka naman Di ba’t may babalikan Sa kawayang daluyan!| Ambahan: Sickness Sickness is unavoidable in human life. A person who is ill can easily be recognized. Sometimes, whatever is done, all treatment seems to be in vain. But there is always a treatment that’s been forgotten. Ambahan 131| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | This my problem, my headache, I had called the doctors all, had it treated frequently but my headache didn’t go. Like the storm not calming down, like the rain that doesn’t stop it was even getting worse: my head almost cracking up. But the final medicine, why did I not think of it? We must love each other more. Then the problem will be gone, carried along by the wind, covered by the forest trees, and we will be sad no more.| Itong ulong makirot Dinalit na’t ginamot Niritwal na sa bulong Ayaw pong huminahon Parang bagyong inikot Laging unang lagunot Lalo itong tumibok Sa bunbunan paloob Datapwa’t iyang gamot Ikaw, sa ‘king pagsukot Ay karamay kong irog! Huhupa na ang kirot Sa hangin ipasaklot Sa gubat ipataklob Lalaho na ang lungkot!| A serious condition might develop. The usual treatments are of little help. Ambahan 132| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | Says Yumay, when feeling ill: Daog, I am calling you. I am coming all the way to visit your house, Daog. I would like to ask from you, if you could apply your wit, have me treated with your charms. The main reason for all this: my problem, my headache was treated seven times in vain, still the sickness doesn’t go! I am worried and I think that this sickness will result finally into my death.| Panawagan ni Yumay Si Daog tawag tawag Pakay niya sa lakad Si Daog sa may dampa Ako nawa’y tulungan Sa bulong mong malakas Sa mabisa mong dasal Kaya nga nagkaganyan Masakit ang uluhan Pito mang patas-unan Kirot pa’y palagian Huwag sana, h’wag naman Sakit waring hantungan Tiyak na kamatayan!| Why don’t the treatments work? Maybe all the requirements of offerings to the spirits were not properly fulfilled. Ambahan 133| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | Says the spirit of the spring: What has been your offering? Softly cooked rice, there was none, Not a chicken, even one! Only some fruits from a tree! What else could the answer be but rains and a hurricane hitting house and yard again. What are you going to do? Incantation might help you or a seer and his wit! Maybe he can solve your case and prevent further disgrace. Says the one responsible: You, dear spirit of the well, Please, do hide your angriness! It’s my fault, I do confess. I’ll bring the best from my floor that you will complain no more.| Wika ng lamang-lupa Apo Ilog nagbanta: Handog na kani’y wala Ni manok na ‘hinanda Bungang-kahoy lamang ba Ambo’y umampiyas nga Hangin ay hagunot na Sa kabila ng dampa Anong ibibigay pa Bibigkas ng dasal ba? Uusal ng dalit ha Ganyang magmatigas ka Hanggang katapusan pa! Sumagot ang sinama: Kayo, Poon ng sapa H’wag kapootan nawa Alay namin, dulog na Sa sahig nagmumula Sa sumpa po’y iadya!| Ambahan: Food and work Obtaining food keeps the Mangyans busy for most of the year: selecting and preparing the field; sowing the carefully kept seed; weeding and cleaning the plants; harvesting the most precious food, cotton-white mountain rice. Unfortunately, an ideal harvest depends on an exact amount of sun, wind and rain. Often though, an extensive drought, a nasty typhoon or prolonged monsoon rains effect the opposite result, hardship and scarcity of food. It is therefore, no wonder that the Mangyans worry about their crops a great deal. Rice is a food the Mangyans enjoy. After they have harvested their rice, it seems that there will never come an end to their supplies. But, before they realize it, gone is all their hope and happiness. Ambahan 136| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | This kind of rice, Kabasag, When I saw for the first time, The stalks were heavy with grain. When I returned and looked again, Empty and flat were the heads!| Ang palay kong Kabasag Nang minsan kong namatyag Uhay ay sangkatutak Nang balikan ko’t tingnan Uhay ay mangahungkag!| Ambahan 137| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | The little black bird Sawi, So hereabouts its was told, Had a tail long and pretty. But the bird when it grew big, Tail, alas, shorter it grew, Struck by lightning as storm blew.| Ibong si Sawi-sawi Noon pa man ang huni Buntot, mahabang dili Subalit nang lumaki Buntot ko ay umiksi Kinidlat, binuhawi!| Whether one likes it or not, it is necessary to work hard in order to keep his stomach filled. He has to work hard even if he has the help of the spirits. Ambahan 139| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | Our good and precious soil: Would it be as beautiful if we did not work and toil? Very soon it would be waste.| Ating lupang payapa Paano pa gaganda Kung di tayo gumawa Dagli ‘yang mawawala!| Ambahan: Traveling As a relief from his struggle for life, the Mangyan sometimes goes traveling. The moment will come when the Mangyan cannot be kept tied any longer to his house and the daily chores. He has to go, whether it is opportune or not. The woman, however, is not as fortunate as the man; she is tied to her home, especially when her children are still small. In spite of that, she would also like to go out once in a while. The parents should be, therefore, understanding and reasonable. Ambahan 164| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | This journey that I must do, Tell me please what’s wrong with it, And please explain how, indeed, Father and mother dearest! But then if there’s nothing wrong, Then why scold me for so long?| Iring aking pagpasyal Kung mali po ang asal Ako ay kagalitan O Tatay ko, O Inay Ngunit kung kawastuhan H’wag sanang magtungayaw?| The following ambahan is a special bit of advice to those with the unpleasant ringworm skin disease. Ambahan 166| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | Little bird, Balinayaw, When the sun is fading fast, Better not to walk outside, For your colors will stand out On the leafless Limpayaw!| Ay naku ibong Balaw Kung pusyaw na ang araw Huwag ka ngang galawgaw Kulay mo ay lilitaw Sa panot na Limpayaw!| Just as the speed of those who travel differs, so the character also differs. Ambahan 178| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | Take my bird, the bidlawan, whistling loud and flying far, still he will always come back to the house wherein we dwell. But the bird alipasang whistling loud and flying far, he will not come back again to the house wherein we dwell.| Ibong kong si Bidlawan Sakaling ngang liparan Babalik pa rin iyan Sa ‘ming dampang pugaran Ang ibong layang-layang Kung puma-ilanglang Wala na pong balikan Sa pugad na tahanan!| Ambahan: Hospitality and friendship When a traveler arrives at a house he wont be afraid that he may not be welcome. Hospitality is considered the highest of virtues among the Mangyans. Ambahan 181| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | My dear friend, be welcome here! Where, perchance, did you come from? From the seashore ebbing low, from the bubbling water spring? If from the water source up, let us talk a moment here, in a happy, friendly way. Even whoever you are, we like to be at your side.| Katoto kong matalik Saan ka ba nanggaling Sa baybayin bang gilid Nasunson ba ng batis Kung sa bukal ng tubig Halina at magniig Sa kwentuhan mong ibig Di-kilala ma’t batid Makapiling ka’y lirip!| Sitting together on the balcony in the soft moonlight, the Mangyan feel inspired. Friendship is great! Ambahan 198| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | Look! The moon so full and bright, shining in front of the house! How can you explain to me, that the rays are soft and cool? If a man like us he were, I would hold him by the hand! Seize the hair to keep him back! Grasp the clothes to make him stay! But how could I manage that! It is the moon in the sky! The full moon shining so bright, going down beyond the hills, disappearing from the plain, out of sight behind the rocks.| Kay liwanag ng buwan Sa balkunahe’y sinag Paano naging ganyak Luningning ay busilak Kung tao s’yang katulad Pipigilan kong tiyak Sa buhok, siya’y hawak Siguro sa damit man Pa’no mapipigilan May buwang nakasinag Bituing kumikislap May bundok kinublihan May hinamugang patag May tuktok na pinugad.| The visitor will be home again, but the memory of his good friends will remain forever. Ambahan 205| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | You, my friends, dearest of all, thinking of you makes me sad. Rivers deep are in between, forests vast keep us apart. But thinking of you with love, as if you are here nearby standing, sitting at my side.| Lugod kong kaibigan Kung kita’y pag-isipan May ilog sa pagitan May gubat sa harapan Ngunit kung pagbulayan Parang nasa tabihan Kapiling sa kandungan.| Ambahan: Marriage Although the courtship period has a varied set of rules and ceremonials, the marriage itself is as simple as possible. After the consent of the parents has been obtained, the unceremonial first sleep of both the spouses together is considered as wedlock itself. In the ambahan literature, a major part revolves around the perennial theme of married life and all its ramifications. After many years of living together, does the husband still remember his promise that he gave as an ardent lover? When difficulties arise, the Mangyans try to smooth them out themselves. Ambahan 210| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | If the ties you use at home Become weak and tend to break, You should be the one to mend, The one to restore their strength.| Panali ma’y marupok Uway iyan na gapok Ikaw itong susubok Magtitibay nang lubos!| The following advice is worthwhile to remember! Ambahan 231| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | Even with disharmony and a quarrel now and then. No reason to separate. Try to understand it first!| Kahit may kaguluhan May tampuha’t alitan Di dapat talikuran Unawain mo naman!| Parting for a longer period of time is sad for the couple. Ambahan 234| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | My dear fragrant herb, my wife, it is true, we have to part, on this day and on this hour. If united we remain and our bond is strong and pure, you and I, far as we are, it’s like holding hands again, it’s like sitting side by side.| Kab’yak kong halimuyak Kita ma’y magkawalay Ngayon at lumaon man Kung buklod ay matibay Maayos ang samahan Ikaw nga at ako man Magkahawak ng kamay Wari’y nasa kandungan!| Ambahan: Old age Sharing their love, the happy couple grows old together. Old age in Mangyan society is not given special status and special privileges. As long as anyone is able to keep up, he is expected to take part in daily work. It is, therefore, not surprising to see the old and feeble people working side by side with the younger generations in the rice fields. However, the irrevocable advance of time is felt by the elder generation. It is something that can’t be changed. Ambahan 235| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | It’s a fact we all know, a truth wherever we go: the sun in the afternoon will be setting very soon.| Di ba’t totoo naman Katunayan saan man Araw sa kataasan Ay lulubog rin naman.| Among themselves, the older generation talk about the time when they will no longer be together. Will there still come another day after this night? Ambahan 237| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | At this hour of the dark night we are still together now on the woven sleeping-mat. But when the sun rises soon, and the stars become detached, our bond might break up too. When we’ll ever meet again, it is not with mortal eyes, but the eye-sight of the soul.| Sa sandaling karimlan Kahit kita magtipan Sa banig na higaan Pagsikat nitong araw Talang maghihiwalay; Buklod nati’y bibigay; Pagkikita’y daratal Paningi’y mapawi man May bagong kaanyuan.| The thought of death is quietly accepted by a Mangyan. It is not the frightful and horrible event that is feared so much by the lowland Christians. For a Mangyan, death is part of the life cycle of every human being; it is looked upon as something that will bring a definite change in life, mostly for the better, not for the worst. Especially when the Mangyan gets old, he likes to think of death as the moment that will bring him back again to his beloved who went ahead of him. Ambahan 242| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | Says the man, already old, thinking of life after death: When I leave, it will be nice. I will whistle, I will yell on the highest mountain peaks. Yes, one day I will be glad; I will see my wife again! Many things we’ll have to say! Then I won’t want to come back.| Wika ng isang Mangyan Isip ang kamatayan Kung yayao’t papanaw Sipol akong hihiyaw Sa landas sa ‘bundukan Kung dumatal ang asam Pagtagpo natin hirang Sa usal ay puspusan Papanaw nang tuluyan| Ambahan: Death When physical life comes to an end, the soul departs for another place. The moment of dying, this singular experience, is vividly remembered afterwards by the soul, especially if death came during an agonizing circumstance. Ambahan 246| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | Says the soul remembering: Just a while ago at home, in the house I used to stay, My body was really bad, lying sickly on the mat, though not ready yet to go. Scared to death I really was! I was going to the right and to left, back and forth! So confused I was that time! Now, my body laid at rest, finally I took a bath in the waters for the soul. I am starting on my way to the place my father went, and where Mother joined him, too.| Taghoy ng kaluluwa: Kanina nang lumisan Sa dampa kong tahanan Katawan ko’y naghihirap Sa banig na higaan Di pa lumilisan Balisang nagpaalam Pa-biling-biling naman Pakaliwa’t pakanan Sige na nga kung ganyan Ako na ay lilisan Liligo sa hugasan Sa tubig dalisayan Sa bago kong hantungan Sa tabihan ni Amang Kapiling na si Inang!| Tragic, also is the Mangyan who died out of misery and chagrin because of the hardship he had to deal with! We do not know what his problems were or who caused them, but that he had some is clear from his explanation! Ambahan 251| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | These are the words of the soul: Who would finally not complain! My house on the mountain slope in the darkness of the night, hurricanes were howling loud. When the sun was in the sky, the shower came lashing down! All the southern typhoon winds, all the north-western storms, my house they were hitting hard! That was exactly the case. No wonder I left the place!| Hinagpis ng kalul’wa: Sinong di masasaktan Bahay ko sa tarikan Kung gabi at karimlan Ang hangin ay bugsuan Kung araw ay sikatan Ambon ay ampiyasan Saklot ng habagat man Pispis nga ng amihan Tutok doo’t bugsuan Kang ganyan rin nga lamang Sa dampa na’y lilisan| All this information comes from the realm of the dead, furnished by the deceased themselves! Communicating with the souls or spirits of the dead is nothing extraordinary for the Mangyans. These are those persons who possess the power to strike up a conversation with the spirits by means of a medium or daniw. The conversation resembles a sà ©ance among spiritualists. The Mangyan who grieves about the death of a dear one likes to avail himself of the services of a daniw in order to see if the soul of the deceased cannot be convinced to come back and join his earthly body again. Positive results are said to be known, but they are not recorded in the ambahan verse. The ambahan samples available only relate the failure of the daniw and the decisiveness of the soul to continue his course in the other life. Ambahan 252| Hanunuo-Mangyan| English| Filipino| | Says the seer’s medium: You, soul, can you tell me please, why is it you were so scared, that time when you left the house? Wasn’t a spirit from the woods? If so, I took care of that through my prayers very strong and the incantations too! Your fears should have disappeared, since the Evil one is gone. All the more, it’s long ago that I caged him through my strength.| Ang wika nitong Daniw: Kalul’wa, hoy sabihin Takot ka ba at bakit? Sa tahana’y umalis Kung malignong gubatin Ligtas nating talunin Sa lakas ng dalangin Sa tindi ng humigmig Tuloy kang manahimik Maligno’y gagapusin Ngayon at noon mandin Sa dunong bibihagin!| Mangyan groups Ethnographic map of Mindoro There are around 300 million indigenous peoples in the world. In the Philippines, of the projected population of 94 million in 2010, about 15% belong to indigenous groups. [AusAID] Mindoro is the seventh largest island in the Philippines, with an area of 10,224 square kilometers and two provinces – Oriental and Occidental. Of the total population of one million, the indigenous population is estimated at 100,000. Mangyan is the collective name for the eight indigenous groups living in Mindoro, each with its own name, language, and set of customs: * Iraya * Alangan * Tadyawan * Tau-buid * Bangon * Buhid * Hanunuo * Ratagnon Iraya An Iraya-Mangyan family [Source: Mangyan Mission] The Iraya Mangyans live in the municipalities of Puerto Galera, San Teodoro and Baco in Oriental Mindoro but most are in Occidental Mindoro, particularly in the municipalities of Abra de Ilog, Paluan, Mamburao and Santa Cruz. Estel (1952) described the Iraya as having curly or deep wavy hair and dark skin but not as dark as that of the Negrito. During ancient times, the Iraya traditional attire was made of dry tree bark, pounded to make it flat and soft. The women usually wore a blouse and a skirt and the men wore g-strings made of cloth. Today, however, the Iraya are dressed just like the lowland people. Ready-to-wear clothes are easier to find than their traditional costume [Uyan, 2002]. The Irayas are also skilled in nito-weaving. Handicrafts such as jars, trays, plates and cups of different sizes and design are being marketed to the lowlanders. They subsist on rice, banana, sweet potato, and other root crops. Alangan An Alangan-Mangyan woman in traditional attire The Alangan Mangyans live in the municipalities of Naujan, Baco, San Teodoro, and Victoria in Oriental Mindoro, and in the municipality of Sablayan in Occidental Mindoro. The name Alangan was derived from the name of a river and mountain slopes in the upper Alangan Valley [Leykamm, 1979]. The women traditionally wear a skirt called lingeb. This is made of long strips of woven nito (forest vines), and is wound around the abdomen. This is worn together with the g-string called abayen. The upper covering is called ulango, made from the leaf of the wild buri palm. Sometimes a red kerchief called limbutong is worn over the ulango. The men wear g-strings with fringes in front. The Alangan Mangyans practise swidden farming, which consists of eleven stages. Two of them are the firebreak-making (agait) and the fallowing (agpagamas). A firebreak is made so the fire will not go beyond the swidden site where the vegetation is thoroughly dry and ready for burning. Two years after clearing, cultivation of the swidden is normally ceased and the site is allowed to revert back to forest [Quiaoit, 1997]. Betel nut chewing is also noted among the Alangans, like all other Mangyan tribes. This they chew with great fervor from morning to night, saying that they don’t feel hunger as long as they chew betel nut [Leykamm, 1979]. Nonetheless, betel chewing has a social dimension. Exchange of betel chew ingredients signifies social acceptance. Tadyawan Tadyawan Mangyans in Oriental Mindoro [Source: Mangyan Mission] The Tadyawan Mangyans live in the municipalities of Naujan, Victoria, Socorro, Pola, Gloria, Pinamalayan, and Bansud. In the past, the women wore for their upper covering a red cloth called paypay, which is wound around the breast. For their lower covering, they wrapped around the waist a white cloth called talapi. The men wore g-strings called abay. For their accessories, women wore colorful bracelets and necklaces made of beads. Today the women are rarely seen wearing their traditional attire, though some men still wear the abay. Like all other Mangyan tribes, the Tadyawan depend on their â€Å"kaingin† farm for subsistence. Their staple foods are upland rice, banana, sweet potato, and taro. Some have also planted fruit-bearing trees like rambutan, citrus, and coffee in their kaingin. Tau-buid A Tau-buid Mangyan in Occidental Mindoro [Source: Overseas Missionary Fellowship] The Tau-buids are known as pipe smokers and even children begin smoking at a young age. Standard dress for men and women is the loin cloth. In some areas close to the lowlands, women wrap a knee-length cloth around their bark bra-string and men wear cloth instead of bark. Bark cloth is worn by both men and women in the interior and is also used for head bands, women’s breast covers, and blankets. Cloth is made by extracting, pounding and drying the inner bark of several trees [Pennoyer, 1979]. The Tau-buid Mangyans live in the municipalities of Socorro, Pinamalayan and Gloria, but mostly in Occidental Mindoro. Bangon A Bangon-Mangyan elder [Source: Mangyan Mission] The Bangon Mangyans live along the Bongabon river called Binagaw and the surrounding mountains in the municipalities of Bongabong, Bansud, and Gloria in Oriental Mindoro. The Bangon Mangyans have their own culture, language and writing system, different to the other tribes in Oriental Mindoro, and asserted they be considered the seventh major tribe – not a sub-tribe of the Tau-buid. In a March 28, 1996 meeting with Buhid Mangyans in Ogom Liguma, they decided to accept the word Bangon for their tribe. Buhid A Buhid-Mangyan woman [Source: Mangyan Mission] The Buhids are known as pot makers. Other Mangyan tribes, like the Alangan and Hanunuo, used to buy their cooking pots from the Buhids. The word Buhid literally means â€Å"mountain dwellers† [Postma, 1967]. Buhid women wear woven black and white brassiers called linagmon and a black and white skirt called abol. Unmarried women wear body ornaments such as a braided nito belt (lufas), blue thread earrings, beaded headband (sangbaw), beaded bracelet (uksong), and beaded long necklace (siwayang or ugot). The men wear g-strings. To enhance body beauty, the men wear ornaments like a long beaded necklace, tight choker (ugot) and beaded bracelet (uksong). Both sexes use an accessory bag called bay-ong for personal things like comb and knife [Litis, 1989]. Together with the Hanunuo, the Buhids in some areas possess a pre-Spanish syllabic writing system. The Buhid Mangyans live in the municipalities of Roxas, Bansud, Bongabong and some parts of Mansalay in Oriental Mindoro, and in the municipalities of San Jose and Rizal in Occidental Mindoro. Hanunuo A Hanunuo-Mangyan family [Source: Mangyan Mission] To the Hanunuo, clothing (rutay) is one of the most important criteria in distinguishing the Mangyan from the non-Manyan (damuong). A Hanunuo-Mangyan male wears a loin cloth (ba-ag) and a shirt (balukas). A female wears an indigo-dyed short skirt (ramit) and a blouse (lambung). Many of the traditional style shirts and blouses are embroidered on the back with a design called pakudos, based on the cross shape. This design is also found on their bags made of buri (palm leaf) and nito (black fern), called bay-ong. Both sexes used to wear a twilled rattan belt with pocket (hagkos) at their waist. Long hair is the traditional style for a man. It is tied in one spot at the back of the head with a cloth hair-band called panyo. Women also have long hair often dressed with a headbands of beads. The Hanunuo Mangyans of all ages and both sexes are very fond of wearing necklaces and bracelets of beads [Miyamoto, 1985]. In the past they cultivated cotton trees and from these obtained raw materials which they wove in a crude hand loom called harablon. The process of weaving was called habilan, which starts with the gathering of cotton balls and pilling them to dry in a flat basket (bilao). Afterwards, the seeds are removed and the cotton placed on a mat and beaten by two flat sticks to make it fine. Next the cotton is placed inside a container made out of banana stalks (binuyo) and woven. Noted anthropologist Harold Conklin made an extensive study on the Hanunuo-Mangyan agricultural system in 1953. The Hanunuo Mangyans practise swidden farming. This type of farming is different from the â€Å"kaingin† system practised by non-Mangyans which is often very destructive when it is done with no proper safeguards to prevent the fire from spreading to the surrounding vegetation. A fallow period is also observed so that the swidden farm will revert back to forest. According to Conklin, the Mangyans managed their swidden farms skillfully. In 1995, almost half a century after Con klin’s research, a study on the Hanunuo Mangyans’ swidden farming system was conducted by Hayama Atsuko. She concluded that the Hanunuo Mangyans’ farming practices have prevented land deterioration in spite of the fact that forest land degradation is now evident in their territory due to various factors. Together with their northern neighbor the Buhids, the Hanunuo possess a pre-Spanish writing system, considered to be of Indic origin, with characters expressing the open syllables of the language [Postma, 1981]. This syllabic writing system, called Surat Mangyan, is being taught in several Mangyan schools in Mansalay and Bulalacao. The Hanunuo Mangyans live in the municipalities of Mansalay, Bulalacao, and some parts of Bongabong in Oriental Mindoro, and in the municipality of San Jose in Occidental Mindoro. Ratagnon The Ratagnon live in the southernmost part of the municipality of Magsaysay in Occidental Mindoro. Their language is similar to the Visayan Cuyunon language, spoken by the inhabitants of Cuyo Island in Northern Palawan. The Ratagnon women wear a wrap-around cotton cloth from the waistline to the knees and some of the males still wear the traditional g-string. The women’s breast covering is made of woven nito (vine). They also wear accessories made of beads and copper wire. The males wear a jacket with simple embroidery during gala festivities and carry flint, tinder, and other paraphernalia for making fire. Both sexes wear coils of red-dyed rattan at the waistline. Like other Mangyan tribes, they also carry betel chew and its ingredients in bamboo containers.

Confessions – Aurelius Augustine

26 November 2007 The Measure of a Woman In one of his most famous works, Confessions, Aurelius Augustine maps out important details and happenings throughout his life in reference to his loved ones and his God. An undeniable aspect of his life is the influence of his mother, Monica, and her perspective on life, love, and death. If compared to another famous female figure in the Christian life, such as Rebekah, the mother of Jacob, Monica’s virtues of patience and eternal perspective shine through, revealing her Biblical view of marriage and her husband.Augustine commends his mother’s virtues and lifestyle, providing an example for women everywhere to carefully consider. Monica shows one of the most difficult qualities in life to possess-patience. She demonstrates patience toward her son, Augustine, in her continual prayer and intercession for his salvation. In his Confessions, Augustine describes his mother’s prayers mixed with tears as he sets sail for Rome (5. 1232). Despite his departure, she continues to seek God for His power in the life of her son. Her patience is rewarded years later when Augustine finally comes to know the Lord.When Augustine brings her the good news, she is â€Å"filled with triumphant exultation† (8. 1238). Ultimately Monica realizes that God has done more than she could ever imagine. In Carl G. Vaught’s The Journey Toward God in Augustine’s Confessions: Book I-VI, he presents the importance of Augustine’s relationship with his mother concerning his conversion. He proposes that because of his relationship with his mother Augustine â€Å"begins to move beyond Skellenger 2 space and time toward the positive relationship with God that Monica wants him to embrace† (68).No doubt Monica’s patience influences her son to embark on his journey towards the Lord. By the time her son is converted, Monica already has countless opportunities to develop patience in her life. Before her e nduring attitude touches Augustine’s life, she is able to influence both her husband and mother-in-law. Referring to his mother’s impact on the life of his grandmother, Augustine confirms that Monica â€Å"won her completely by her unfailing patience and mildness† (Confessions 9. 1243). Such a straightforward statement proves that he not only recognizes, but also admires the virtue of patience he sees in his mother’s life.In one of his other works, Encounters With God in Augustine's Confessions: Books VII-IX, Carl G. Vaught draws attention to the fact that â€Å"Monica’s victory in this case is an unusual feat in any culture† (122). Perhaps demonstrating patience towards her mother-in-law is one of a woman’s greatest accomplishments in life. If so, this would greatly substantiate Monica’s character. Another virtue that Augustine reveres in Monica’s life is her eternal perspective. This is seen in his account of her last few days before her death. He reports that to both of them â€Å"the world with all its delights seemed cheap† (Confessions 9. 245). Monica’s focus on the life to come causes her to disregard the importance of her physical body’s final resting place. She gives instruction that her body is to be buried â€Å"wherever it may be† at the time of her death (9. 1246). Vaught again comments on the life of Monica, suggesting that â€Å"she points beyond death and the need to place the body in a particular place† (Encounters 135). Monica’s ability to see past the temporal life on earth illustrates her faith and obedience to God’s Word, which encourages the believer in II Corinthians 4:18 to concentrate on that which is eternal.In comparison, Rebekah of the Old Testament is not as patient nor eternally minded as Monica. Rather than waiting on the Lord to work in the lives of her family members, Rebekah feels the need to make things happen for h erself. When Rebekah discovers that her husband Skellenger 3 desires to bless their two sons she wastes no time to command the younger of the two boys, Jacob, to trick his father in order to receive the greater of the blessings. Though Jacob attempts to warn his mother of the potential danger she disregards it replying in Genesis 27:13, â€Å"My son, let the curse fall on me.Just do what I say. † The reader virtually hears the impatience and haste in Rebekah’s voice. In Matthew Henry’s Concise Commentary on the Whole Bible, he describes Rebekah’s response as â€Å"a very rash word† (162). He also points out the fact that if Rebekah would have walked in patience and trust, rather than impulsiveness and anxiety, Jacob could have received the blessing in a proper way since God had already promised in Genesis 23:25 that he would be blessed (164). Both Rebekah and Monica receive the things they are after, yet in contrast to Monica’s patience whic h produces peace nd harmony in her home, Rebekah’s impatience results in additional strife and dissension amongst her family. It also displays Rebekah’s earthly and temporal mindset. She is so concerned with an earthly inheritance for her son that she fails to remember that it is God who blesses and fulfills His Word in His perfect timing and way. The virtues a woman possesses can have a huge impact on her view of marriage. Particular virtues may also shape her understanding and belief about her responsibilities to her husband.While counseling her peers, Monica reveals her personal belief and view of marriage, calling it a â€Å"matrimonial contract†¦an instrument by which they became servants† (Confessions 9. 1243). She also sees her life and the institute of marriage as a way to reach others and bring peace. Her son calls her a â€Å"peacemaker between people quarreling and minds at discord† (Confessions 9. 1244). Monica considered herself a servan t within the realm of marriage. This concept consequently affects her opinion of what her responsibilities are to her husband. Augustine Skellenger 4 lainly describes Monica’s behavior towards her husband in Book IX of Confessions, writing that â€Å"she served him as her lord† (1243). Such behavior apparently touches Augustine so greatly that he takes the time to include these particular facts in his work. Elizabeth A. Clark also observes in her book, St. Augustine On Marriage and Sexuality, that Augustine â€Å"praises her for the meekly subordinate position she had assumed in relation to his father† (21). Not only does Monica desire to live as a humble servant, she also sees her responsibility to be a witness for Christ to her husband.Augustine goes on to say in Confessions that Monica â€Å"use[s] all her effort to win him† to the Lord and does so by â€Å"preaching†¦to him by her character† (9. 1243). What a beautiful picture of Christâ⠂¬â„¢s love shining through her actions and integrity. She understands the power of her pure and submissive conduct, as well as the negative influence words possess while spoken in uncontrolled emotion. As Vaught so beautifully articulates, Monica â€Å"is prepared to wait for God’s mercy to transform him† (Encounters 121).Her approach to her husband may appear backwards to her peers, yet Monica’s demeanor proves to have amazing influence in her husband’s life. In comparison to Monica’s submission and faithfulness to her husband, Rebekah chooses to act out of desperation and fear. Though she serves her husband and family for the majority of her life, the story of her and Jacob’s deception illustrates a time when she decided to be lord of her house, instead of submitting to the head of their home, Isaac. During that time she does not walk in integrity towards her husband as Monica did.On the contrary, she devises a plan found in Genesis 27:14 -17 to deceive Isaac by dressing up Jacob in order to appear as Esau, his brother. Instead of utilizing her position of wife and mother to promote peace she attempts to orchestrate a selfish and cunning plan. This is a complete contrast to Monica’s desire to be a witness and model of God’s love. Skellenger 5 Monica is a Godly woman, referred to by her son with same qualities found in the third chapter of I Timothy, such as making herself beautiful by submitting to her husband.Her perspective and conduct would be magnificent to see in today’s women. Perhaps her ways might be considered old fashioned, weak, or even a way of suppressing women’s power. On the other hand, Rebekah’s choice to take charge is widely accepted and viewed as powerful in society today. Yet by humbling herself, Monica receives God’s power, as well as answers to her many prayers, and in her supposed weaker state she has enormous influence and power that goes far beyond th e realm of Rebekah’s misleading strength. Skellenger 6 Works CitedAugustine, Aurelius, and Elizabeth A. Clark, ed. St. Augustine On Marriage and Sexuality Fathers of the Church V. 1. Washington, D. C. Catholic University of America Press, 1996. ; http://www. netlibrary. com. library. dbu. edu:2048/Reader/;. Henry, Matthew. Commentary on the Whole Bible Volume I (Genesis to Deuteronomy). Logos, Inc. 1706-1721. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. ;http://www. ccel. org/ccel/henry /mhc1. html;. The Holy Bible, New International Version. International Bible Society, 1894. ;http://www. biblegateway. om/;. Lawall, Sarah, and Maynard Mack, Eds. The Norton Anthology of World Literature. 2nd ed. Vol. B. New York: W. W. Norton ; Company, 2002. Vaught, Carl G. The Journey Toward God in Augustine’s Confessions: Books I-VI. Albany State University of New York Press, 2003. ;http://www. netlibrary. com. library. dbu. edu:2048/Reader/;. Vaught, Carl G. Encounters With God in Augustin e's Confessions: Books VII-IX. Albany State University of New York Press, 2004. .

Glmaorizing Teen Pregnancy Essay

Media, specifically television has taken the issue of teen pregnancy to a whole other level. The shows 16 and Pregnant, Teen Mom, and The Secret Life of the American Teenager document the lives of young teenage girls facing the issue of being a pregnant teenager. Originally created to show the controversial subject of teen pregnancy, all of these shows soon began to change. As the seasons continued in all three of these shows, the controversial subject of teen pregnancy soon became a glorifying concept. What was first viewed as just a fantasy is now becoming a reality for many teenagers. Viewers of these shows are now seeing that teen pregnancy isn’t all that bad; it may even be considered normal according to MTV and ABC Family. The â€Å"teenage celebrities† on these shows are making it through life just fine; portraying that anyone else can too. Yes, these teenagers may have faced hard times in the beginning, but at the end of the day, their lives are unrealistically viewed as ordinary. Both MTV and ABC Family depict the lifestyle of being a pregnant teenager to be somewhat glamorizing. The reality television show 16 and Pregnant was first aired on MTV on June 11, 2009. This show follows the stories of four pregnant teenage girls [Farrah, Maci, Amber and Catelynn] that are in high school dealing with the hardships of teenage pregnancy. â€Å"Each episode follows a five to seven month period in the life of a teenager as she navigates the bumpy terrain of adolescence, growing pains, rebellion, and coming of age; all while dealing with being pregnant† (MTV. com). During the first few episodes of season one, the struggles of dealing with teenage pregnancy seemed difficult and nearly impossible. MTV portrayed each girl as if they were not going to make it through this crisis they were about to face, and their lives were soon coming to an end because being a pregnant teen was not acceptable. As the show continued and episodes passed, these so called â€Å"hardships†, no longer seemed to be that difficult. With all the support from their families and/or boyfriends that they received, these teenage girls were able to get through this bump in the road pretty well. Not only did they get support from people they knew, they received the most of their support from MTV. While teenage pregnancy might have started out rough, becoming an MTV celebrity could not have been too bad. According to Arienne Thompson, author of â€Å"16, Pregnant †¦ and Famous: Teem Moms Are TV’s New Stars†, â€Å"All four women are mainstays on USA TODAY’s Celebrity Heat Index, which measures media exposure; Portwood [Amber] topped the list for October, beating out Angelina Jolie and Prince William. The moms are regularly on the covers of People and Us Weekly and have Facebook fan pages dedicated to them† (USA Today). Putting the stars of these reality shows on a magazine cover puts them in the same place as any other famous person. The message that is being sent out to girls is that if they get pregnant as a result of being sexually active, then they too can end up on TV or on a magazine cover. Being sixteen and pregnant may not be the most ideal lifestyle, but becoming more popular than an experienced, well-known actress at the age of sixteen is another story. Viewers of 16 and Pregnant now see that if they become pregnant at a young age, they also can have the chance to become famous alike Farrah, Maci, Amber and Catelynn did. MTV did not decide to stop there though. As if these girls were not famous enough, as a continuation of 16 and Pregnant, MTV aired Teen Mom on December 8, 2009, only six short months after the broadcast of 16 and Pregnant took place. This show takes the four teenagers from 16 and Pregnant, and documents their first few years of motherhood. Receiving more attention than before, MTV has millions of viewers watching Teen Mom each week, making these â€Å"teenage celebrities† even more famous. Teen Mom executive producer Morgan J. Freeman says, â€Å"The concern for teens, however, is what else they may see in the show. While the Teen Mom stars have their share of struggles on the small screen each week, paparazzi shots and tabloid covers manage to rip them out of the context of MTV and place them in the realm of celebrity† (USA Today). Even celebrities agree that the characters on these shows are becoming too idolized. â€Å"Kim Kardashian boldly states that â€Å"It seems like shows like ‘Teen Mom’ are all of a sudden making teen pregnancy look cool in the eyes of young girls. She even goes a step farther and says that the girls from the shows â€Å"have become almost like celebrities, but girls these are not people you should idolize! †Ã¢â‚¬  (Jadebt13). Along with MTV, ABC Family decided to air a show following the life of a pregnant teenager. On, July 1, 2008, ABC Family aired the show, The Secret Life of the American Teenager, which became the network’s most watched series in the 12-34 demographic (McKay 1). This show follows the character Amy Jergen through her pregnant life, and also through her life of being a mother. In the first season, Amy realizes that she has become pregnant, and does not know how to tell her friends or family. This season shows the struggles that Amy faces while being pregnant, but as the season comes to an end, life become simpler to Amy. The Secret Life of the American Teenagers glamorizes her teen pregnancy by having the schools marching band play their instruments as Amy first returns back to school after finding out that she has become pregnant [which is a little unrealistic]. Not only does this event take place, but also Amy’s boyfriend, which is not the father of her soon to be son, proposes the idea of getting married and helping her take care of the baby. At the start of the second season, Amy has her baby boy, named John. With the birth of John everything soon turned into a fairytale ending, and her life completely turned around; her boyfriend problems fall into place, and she started to receive support from her family, friends and community. This season sent out the message to its viewers that if you become pregnant as a teenager, you will have support from surrounding people, when that is not always the case. In conclusion, television is glamorizing the lifestyle of pregnant teenagers. The shows 16 and Pregnant, Teen Mom, and The Secret Life of the American Teenager all have different story lines to them, but in the end, they all show that some good can come out of being a pregnant teen. 6 and Pregnant and Teen Mom are both reality television shows that idolize the glamour of being pregnant by the publicizing these girls not only on MTV, but also in outside sources such as magazines. The Secret Life of the American Teenager on the other hand, is a scripted television show that depicts teen pregnancy as being a joy, fun, and simple by showing how great life can be having a baby at such a young age. Both MTV and ABC Family chose to air similar concept shows around the same time period that glamorized teen pregnancy when r ealistic having a baby in your teen years is not ideal, nor a pleasure.

Humanitarian Intervention in Iraq Essay

In March of 2003 the United States of America invaded the Middle Eastern nation of Iraq. Under many pretenses, the stage was being set for this invasion, one reason calling for the invasion was that Bush administration and its officials assured the world that the Hussein regime was producing weapons of mass destruction or WMD’s, which would pose a huge security threat to all the nations around the world. Another being the fact that Hussein supported the group responsible for the attacks on our country on September 11th 2001, which angered plenty of Americans and seemingly justified violence to be used. And also the fact that Hussein needed to be removed from power as he was a brutal dictator who was committing egregious acts of violence against his own people. Therefore a humanitarian intervention would be called for using militaristic means. The administration under President Bush pushed the idea on the American people and the world that Iraq would be a better place without H ussein in control, also making the world a safer place. This war has cost the lives of approximately 600,000 Iraqis and 3,163 American soldiers, not to mention other soldiers from other nations involved in the conflict. The actions leading up to the subsequent invasion and occupation affected Iraq negatively and caused consequences that harmed all of Iraqi society, mainly innocent people. The way the world dealt with Saddam Hussein wasn’t proper nor in the best interests going forward for the Iraqi people and the citizens of the world based on many factors. Years before boots were even on the ground in Iraq, the world had taken extreme steps to curb Iraqi aggression, most notably beginning in 1990 when Iraq invaded its neighbor Kuwait in August. There were many reasons why Iraq may have invaded Kuwait. Some say that it was because Kuwait was stealing Iraqi oil and even the fact that Iraq owed Kuwait large sums of money after the Iran-Iraq war. But one of the very first steps that were taken was that the United Nations (UN) became heavily involved. The UN includes the UN Security Council (UNSC) which is the group that has control over UN military force and is in charge of implementing resoluti ons against regimes that may be breaking international law. The first resolution put in place against Iraq was UNSC 678, which was implemented just a few days after the Iraqi Revolutionary Guard invaded the country. UNSC 678 â€Å"authorized force against Iraq, to eject it from Kuwait and to restore peace and security in the area.† This action was ordered through all necessary means including use of the military. This was known as the Gulf War, but UNSC 678 only applied to the actions taken in 1990 through 1993 and does not include the intervention in 2003 by American and coalition forces. Next was UNSC resolution 1154, passed in 1998 and which mandated that Iraq was not allowed to be in possession or manufacture chemical, biological, or nuclear weaponry. This resolution also stated that the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and its inspectors were required to inspect Iraq’s suspected nuclear and weapons manufacturing facilities. Iraq did not completely comply with the resolution because they did not allow unrestricted access with what the IAEA inspectors wanted to see. This was seen as a shady move to much of the world and as if the Hussein regime had something to hide. A final warning to Iraq was issued in 2002 in UNSC resolution 1441, which was the last warning to the Hussein regime to comply with the demands of the previous UNSC resolutions and limit their weapons capabilities. In Alex Conte’s book, Operation Iraqi Freedom he states that, â€Å"Resolutions 678, 687, 1441, and 1154 do not legitimize use of force in Iraq† (Conte 139-162). There are only a select few instances in which the UNSC authorizes the use of force, one being if the expression â€Å"all necessary means and measures† is used in the resolution or if a member state of the UN is granted a mandate for action in another state and it is approved by the UNSC. Wording for many of these resolutions was very controversial be tween representatives of various nation states on the UNSC, regarding what powers one could legally take. But overall none of these UNSC resolutions approved of any military action to be taken in Iraq humanitarian or not in 2003; so in other words, all of the military actions that were taken were not legal in any form and against international law. The economic sanctions against Iraq also heavily affected the country before it was invaded by the coalition forces in 2003. â€Å"Iraq’s devastation is not primarily the result of American bombing†¦but the economic crisis that befell the country before the first shot was fired† (Rieff 185). The sanctions placed on Iraq were intended to hurt the Hussein regime, but in fact they just hurt the people under Hussein’s rule and put the entire Iraqi economy into terrible condition. The sanctions were a response to Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and reportedly used as a deterrent to Hussein’s aggression in the area, but the people hurt most by the sanctions were innocent Iraqis. â€Å"From 1991 until 2003 t he effects of government policy and the sanctions led to hyperinflation, widespread poverty, and malnutrition† (Dodge 706). This goes to show the negative effects that the sanctions had on the citizens of Iraq. Also mentioned in Rieff’s book, Democratic Dreams and Armed Intervention: At the Point of a Gun, is the fact that daily life was getting harder for Iraqis and their ability to receive the same goods as they had before the sanctions diminished drastically; â€Å"Before the sanctions Iraq imported 70% of its food, medicine, and chemicals, UNSC resolution 661 stopped all of that† (Rieff 187). These facts made the Iraqi citizens hate the crippling sanctions that were being placed on them because of the aggression of just their dictatorial leader. Many scholars believe that the sanctions made life already under a brutal dictator even more constrained and restrictive. Iraq before the sanctions was a very strong welfare state just like many of the oil rich nations of the Middle East which gave pensions to their citizens based on oil income, about â€Å"40% of Iraqi households were dependent on government payment† (Dodge 709). But because of the sanctions that same forty percent had to find other ways to receive income in a worsening economy. Many citizens such as Khaled Afra, a student opposed the sanctions just as they opposed the rule of Hussein, â€Å"Saddam was a criminal, the biggest. But the sanctions were also criminal†¦ You see the sanctions really crushed our dreams – not my personal dreams only, but those of my Iraqi people, all of us† (Rieff 193). Hussein did use the sanctions to his advantage though; he used them as premise to form Iraqi public opinion against the sanctions, the various governments of the West, and the United Nations. Huge propaganda campaigns began in the country and in a way were very successful, Hussein, for example, would convince his people that in fact he wasn’t evil and it was the nations of the West that were evil as they placed the sanctions on Iraq to try and starve innocent Iraqis. Hussein even agreed to the Food for Oil program, which help ed relieve some of the pressure and troubles faced by civilians as a result of the sanctions. The program allowed Iraq to sell its oil not for money but for food, medicine, and other supplies that were highly needed in Iraq at the time. Iraqi citizens loved this and praised Hussein for going through and agreeing with the program. A highly questioned component of the sanctions placed on the regime is why did they last so long? As mentioned earlier, the sanctions began right after Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990 but yet they didn’t end until 2003 when the American invasion of Iraq began. Most in the international community believed that the sanctions should’ve ceased to exist after the Gulf War was over or maybe just for a few more years after Iraqi forces were pushed out of Kuwait, but not for a full thirteen years. â€Å"Even many Arab nations who supported the sanctions at first believed that they should have been removed after Iraq left Kuwait† (Rieff 190). Most nations, even those who were against the Hussein regime saw the sanctions being in place after Iraq was ejected from Kuwait as unnecessary, cruel, and throwing salt on the wounds of a nation. The sanctions just made life worse for the regular citizens of Iraq, but the worst was yet to come. One good thing that may have come out of the sanctions is the fact that they did prevent the Hussein regime from obtaining or creating any weapons of mass destruction because the country just could not afford the types of technology needed to do so. Another factor that made conditions even worse for Iraq was the failed planning and research that should’ve been completed before the invasion of the country. â€Å"Fear that Iraq was developing a weapon of mass destruction became sufficiently unbearable to Bush and Congress that they launched and supported a preemptive war based on a poorly defined threat† (Sheenan 6). For one many were forced to believe that Hussein was in possession of WMDs which he wasn’t, therefore that threat did not even exist at all and should be exempt from reasons to invade and occupy the country. Planners of the invasion came up with a plan to oust Hussein from power using what they referred to as the decapitation thesis. The decapitation thesis is just as literal as it sounds, remove the head of the government, referring to Hussein and other high ranking Ba’ath party officials, and continue to use the body, which would be the institutions still under state control, as the head is replaced with new leadership. But the plan did not work as it was supposed to; after Hussein was ousted the country just fell into a power vacuum. Who would the people turn to for leadership? Because Iraq no longer had very strong state institutions, they were collapsed and were no longer working since the country was invaded. â€Å"In the space of two years, because of invasion a nd then state collapse, Iraq went from Rogue, the first category of problematic state, to the second, collapsed. Although military intervention into Rogue states has become increasingly common since the Cold War, it has to date been largely unsuccessful† (Dodge 706). This goes to show that largely — based on the past and places in similar situations — that Iraq was destined to fail. And besides the fact that the planners didn’t fully investigate the situation it seemed that they have even had other objectives besides the ones being expressed to the public. For example, â€Å"In April 2006, U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice and Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld visited Baghdad to intervene in internal discussions about the government and to seek assurances that any future government would allow the United States to preserve its military bases in Iraq† (Arnove 116). Why would the U.S. need to establish bases in Iraq if the primary goal was humanitarian and to free the repressed people under the Hussein regime? Humanitarian intervention was also a huge factor in why the invasion and subsequent occupation was being justified in Iraq. Humanitarian interventions are usually mandated and put in place at the request of the legitimate government that needs the intervention. In this case the government of Iraq would have needed to explicitly ask outside powers to intervene, in which they did not. â€Å"The Security Council did not approve the invasion and the Iraqi government; its existence on the line, violently opposed it† (Roth 1). The Hussein regime opposed such an intervention obviously because it would signal an end to their rule. Even if it was to be a humanitarian intervention by the rules of international law the leaders accused of the alleged crimes against humanity should be brought on trial by the International Criminal Court (ICC). This was not the case for Iraq; none of the high ranking Ba’ath party officials including Hussein were even tried.